Chapter – 4

Primary Activities

In this post we have given the detailed notes of class 12 Geography Book 1 Chapter 4 (Primary Activities) in English. These notes are useful for the students who are going to appear in class 12 board exams.

Chapter 4: Primary Activities

Introduction

• Economic activities are broadly classified into primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary activities.  
• Primary activities are directly dependent on the environment and involve the utilization of the earth’s resources like land, water, vegetation, building materials, and minerals.  
• These activities include hunting and gathering, pastoral activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, mining, and quarrying.  

Hunting and Gathering

• The earliest humans relied on their immediate environment for sustenance, hunting animals and gathering edible plants.  
• Primitive societies in very cold and extremely hot climates survived on hunting.  
• Technological advancements have modernized fishing, but many species have become extinct or endangered due to illegal hunting (poaching).  
• Hunting has been banned in India to protect wildlife and prevent extinction.  
• Gathering is practiced in regions with harsh climates, involving primitive societies extracting plants and animals for food, shelter, and clothing.  
• This activity requires minimal capital investment and operates at a low technological level, resulting in low yield per person and little or no surplus production.  
• Gathering is practiced in high latitude zones like northern Canada, northern Eurasia, and southern Chile, as well as low latitude zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, northern Australia, and interior parts of Southeast Asia.  
• In modern times, some gathering has become market-oriented and commercial, with gatherers collecting and selling valuable plants like leaves, barks, and medicinal plants.  

Pastoralism

• Pastoralism is the practice of domesticating and raising animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools, and transport.  
• Nomadic Herding:
  • Nomadic herding is a primitive subsistence activity where herders rely on animals for their needs and move from place to place with their livestock, depending on the availability of pastures and water.  
  • Each nomadic community occupies a well-identified territory as a matter of tradition.  
  • The type of livestock varies depending on the region, such as cattle in tropical Africa, sheep, goats, and camels in Sahara and Asiatic deserts, yak and llamas in the mountainous areas of Tibet and Andes, and reindeer in the Arctic and sub-Arctic areas.  
  • Pastoral nomadism is associated with three important regions:
    • The core region extends from North Africa across the Arabian peninsula into Mongolia and Central China.  
    • The second region covers the tundra region of Eurasia.  
    • Small areas exist in South-west Africa and Madagascar.  
  • Transhumance is the process of migration from plain areas to mountain pastures during summers and back to plain areas during winters.  
  • The number of pastoral nomads is decreasing due to political boundaries and new settlement plans.  

• Commercial Livestock Rearing:

  • Commercial livestock rearing is more organized and capital-intensive than nomadic herding.  
  • It is essentially associated with western cultures and is practiced on permanent ranches.  
  • Ranches cover large areas and are divided into fenced parcels to regulate grazing.  
  • The number of animals in a pasture is managed according to the carrying capacity of the pasture.  
  • This is a specialized activity where only one type of animal is reared, such as sheep, cattle, goats, and horses.  
  • Products like meat, wool, hides, and skin are processed, packed scientifically, and exported to different world markets.  
  • Rearing of animals in ranching is organized on a scientific basis, with an emphasis on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control, and health care.  

Agriculture

• Agriculture is practiced under various physical and socio-economic conditions, giving rise to different types of agricultural systems.  
• Subsistence Agriculture:
  • Subsistence agriculture is where the farming areas consume all or nearly all of the locally grown products.  
  • Primitive Subsistence Agriculture:
    • Primitive subsistence agriculture, also known as shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture, is widely practiced by many tribes in the tropics.  
    • Vegetation is cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the soil’s fertility.  
    • Cultivated patches are small, and cultivation is done with primitive tools.  
    • After 3 to 5 years, the soil loses fertility, and the farmer shifts to another patch.  
    • Major problems include the decreasing cycle of Jhum (shifting cultivation) due to loss of fertility.  
    • It is prevalent in tropical regions with different names like Jhuming in Northeast India, Milpa in Central America and Mexico, and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.  
  • Intensive Subsistence Agriculture:
    • This type of agriculture is found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.  
    • There are two types:
      • Dominated by wet paddy cultivation:
        • Characterized by the dominance of rice crops.  
        • Land holdings are small due to high population density.  
        • Farmers work with family labor, leading to intensive land use.  
        • Machinery use is limited, and most operations are done manually.  
        • Farmyard manure is used to maintain soil fertility.  
        • Yield per unit area is high, but per labor productivity is low.  
      • Dominated by crops other than paddy:
        • Wheat, soybean, barley, and sorghum are grown in northern China, Manchuria, North Korea, and North Japan.  
        • In India, wheat is grown in the western parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains, and millets are grown in dry parts of western and southern India.  
        • Most characteristics are similar to those dominated by wet paddy, except that irrigation is often used.  

• Plantation Agriculture:

  • Introduced by Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics.  
  • Important crops include tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas, and pineapples.  
  • Characteristic features include large estates, capital investment, managerial and technical support, scientific cultivation methods, single crop specialization, cheap labour, and a good transportation system.  
  • Examples include cocoa and coffee plantations in West Africa (French), tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka (British), rubber plantations in Malaysia (British), and sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies (British).  
  • Ownership of plantations has passed into the hands of governments or nationals of the countries concerned.  

• Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation:

  • Practiced in the interior parts of semi-arid lands of the mid-latitudes.  
  • Wheat is the principal crop, along with corn, barley, oats, and rye.  
  • Farms are large, and operations are mechanized.  
  • Yield per acre is low, but yield per person is high.  
  • Best developed in Eurasian steppes, Canadian and American Prairies, Pampas of Argentina, Velds of South Africa, Australian Downs, and Canterbury Plains of New Zealand.  

• Mixed Farming:

  • Found in highly developed parts of the world, such as North-western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia, and temperate latitudes of Southern continents.  
  • Farms are moderate in size, and crops include wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder, and root crops.  
  • Fodder crops are important, and crop rotation and intercropping maintain soil fertility.  
  • Equal emphasis on crop cultivation and animal husbandry.  
  • Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry provide income along with crops.  
  • Characterized by high capital expenditure on machinery and buildings, use of chemical fertilizers and green manures, and skilled farmers.  

• Dairy Farming:

  • The most advanced and efficient type of milch animal rearing.  
  • Highly capital intensive, with costs including animal sheds, storage facilities, and machines.  
  • Special emphasis on cattle breeding, health care, and veterinary services.  
  • Labour intensive, involving rigorous care in feeding and milking.  
  • No off-season during the year.  
  • Practiced mainly near urban and industrial centres, providing a market for fresh milk and dairy products.  
  • Transportation, refrigeration, pasteurization, and preservation processes have increased the storage duration of dairy products.  
  • Three main regions: North Western Europe, Canada, and South Eastern Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania.  

• Mediterranean Agriculture:

  • Highly specialized commercial agriculture practiced in countries around the Mediterranean Sea, southern California, central Chile, South Africa, and parts of Australia.  
  • Important supplier of citrus fruits.  
  • Viticulture (grape cultivation) is a specialty, producing high-quality wines.  
  • Olives and figs are also produced.  
  • Advantage: valuable crops like fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when there is high demand in European and North American markets.  

• Market Gardening and Horticulture:

  • Specializes in cultivating high-value crops like vegetables, fruits, and flowers for urban markets.  
  • Farms are small and located near urban centres with good transportation links.  
  • Labour and capital intensive, using irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, greenhouses, and artificial heating.  
  • Well, developed in industrial districts of North West Europe, North Eastern United States, and Mediterranean regions.  
  • Truck farming is a type of market gardening specializing in vegetables, with the distance from the market determined by the distance a truck can cover overnight.  

• Factory Farming:

  • A modern development in industrial regions of Western Europe and North America.  
  • Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle, are raised in stalls and pens, fed manufactured feedstuff, and carefully supervised against diseases.  
  • Requires heavy capital investment in buildings, machinery, veterinary services, heating, and lighting.  
  • Breed selection and scientific breeding are important features.  

Farming Organizations

• Co-operative Farming:
  • Farmers form a co-operative society by pooling resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming.  
  • Individual farms remain intact, and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative.  
  • Co-operatives help farmers procure inputs, sell products at favorable terms, and process quality products at cheaper rates.  
  • Successful in many Western European countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy.  
• Collective Farming:
  • Based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labor.  
  • Introduced in the former Soviet Union to improve agricultural production and achieve self-sufficiency.  
  • Farmers pooled resources like land, livestock, and labor but were allowed to retain small plots for personal needs.  

Mining

• The use of minerals dates back to the copper, bronze, and iron ages, initially for tools, utensils, and weapons.  
• Mining developed significantly with the industrial revolution and continues to grow in importance.  
• Factors Affecting Mining Activity:
  • Physical factors: size, grade, and mode of occurrence of the deposits.  
  • Economic factors: demand for the mineral, technology, capital for infrastructure, labour, and transport costs.  
• Methods of Mining:
  • Surface Mining (Open-cast mining):
    • Easiest and cheapest method for minerals close to the surface.  
    • Low overhead costs and high output.  
  • Underground Mining (Shaft method):
    • Used when ore lies deep below the surface.  
    • Involves sinking vertical shafts and creating underground galleries.  
    • Requires specialized equipment and is risky due to poisonous gases, fires, floods, and cave-ins.  
• Developed economies are shifting away from mining due to high labor costs, while developing countries with large labor forces are becoming more important.  
• Many countries in Africa, South America, and Asia earn a significant portion of their income from minerals.  

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