Chapter – 9

Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems

In this post we have given the detailed notes of class 12 Geography Book 2 Chapter 9 (Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems) in English. These notes are useful for the students who are going to appear in class 12 board exams.

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Chapter 9: Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems

Introduction

Environmental pollution is the contamination of the environment with harmful substances and energy due to human activities. It encompasses various forms of pollution, including air, water, land, and noise pollution, each with its own set of causes, effects, and solutions.

Water Pollution

• Causes:

  • Population Growth and Industrialization: The increasing population and rapid industrialization have led to excessive water consumption and the discharge of untreated industrial waste into water bodies.  
  • Industrial Waste: Industries release various pollutants, including heavy metals, chemicals, and toxins, into water bodies, harming aquatic life and rendering water unfit for human use.  
  • Agricultural Runoff: Fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides used in agriculture contaminate water bodies through runoff, leading to eutrophication and harming aquatic ecosystems.  
  • Sewage and Domestic Waste: Untreated sewage and domestic waste from urban areas contribute to water pollution, causing health hazards and spreading waterborne diseases.  
  • Cultural and Religious Practices: Certain cultural and religious practices, such as the disposal of religious offerings and idols in water bodies, can also contribute to pollution.  

• Effects:

  • Health Hazards: Contaminated water causes various diseases, including diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis, posing significant risks to human health.  
  • Ecological Damage: Water pollution disrupts aquatic ecosystems, harming fish, plants, and other aquatic organisms.  
  • Economic Impact: Water pollution affects industries that rely on clean water, such as tourism and fisheries, leading to economic losses.
  • Aesthetic Degradation: Polluted water bodies become visually unappealing and lose their recreational value.

• Specific Examples:

  • The Ganga and Yamuna rivers in India are heavily polluted due to a combination of industrial waste, domestic sewage, agricultural runoff, and religious practices.  
  • The Namami Gange Programme is a government initiative aimed at cleaning and rejuvenating the Ganga river by addressing pollution sources and promoting sustainable water management practices.  

• Prevention and Control:

  • Wastewater Treatment: Treating industrial and domestic wastewater before discharge is crucial to remove pollutants and protect water quality.
  • Sustainable Agriculture: Implementing sustainable agricultural practices, such as reducing chemical use and promoting organic farming, can minimize agricultural runoff and its impact on water bodies.
  • Public Awareness and Education: Educating the public about the importance of water conservation and responsible water use can help reduce pollution and promote sustainable water management.
  • Stricter Regulations and Enforcement: Implementing and enforcing stricter regulations on industrial waste discharge and pollution control can help protect water resources.

Air Pollution

• Causes:

  • Combustion of Fossil Fuels: The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and gas, for energy production and transportation releases harmful pollutants, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide.  
  • Industrial Emissions: Industrial processes release various pollutants into the air, including heavy metals, volatile organic compounds, and particulate matter.  
  • Vehicular Emissions: Exhaust fumes from vehicles are a major source of air pollution, especially in urban areas, contributing to smog and respiratory problems.  
  • Construction and Demolition Activities: Dust and particulate matter generated during construction and demolition activities contribute to air pollution, affecting respiratory health.
  • Natural Sources: Natural events, such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires, can also release pollutants into the atmosphere, although their contribution is generally less significant than human-made sources.

• Effects:

  • Respiratory Diseases: Air pollution causes respiratory problems, such as asthma, bronchitis, and lung cancer, especially in vulnerable populations like children and the elderly.  
  • Cardiovascular Diseases: Air pollution has been linked to cardiovascular diseases, including heart attacks and strokes.
  • Climate Change: Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, released from the burning of fossil fuels contribute to climate change, leading to global warming and its associated impacts.
  • Acid Rain: Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water in the atmosphere to form acid rain, which damages buildings, forests, and aquatic ecosystems.  
  • Visibility Impairment: Air pollution reduces visibility, especially in urban areas, affecting transportation and outdoor activities.

• Specific Examples:

  • Air pollution is a major environmental health risk worldwide, causing millions of premature deaths annually.  
  • Southeast Asia faces severe air pollution problems due to industrial emissions, vehicular traffic, and seasonal forest fires, leading to respiratory illnesses and economic losses.  

• Prevention and Control:

  • Cleaner Energy Sources: Transitioning to cleaner energy sources, such as solar and wind power, can reduce reliance on fossil fuels and decrease air pollution.
  • Energy Efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in industries, buildings, and transportation can lower energy consumption and reduce emissions.
  • Emission Control Technologies: Implementing emission control technologies in industries and vehicles can help reduce the release of pollutants into the atmosphere.
  • Public Transportation: Encouraging the use of public transportation, cycling, and walking can reduce traffic congestion and vehicular emissions.
  • Urban Planning: Designing cities with green spaces, promoting vertical development, and implementing traffic management strategies can improve air quality and reduce pollution.

Noise Pollution

• Causes:

  • Traffic Noise: Noise from road traffic, including cars, buses, and trucks, is a major source of noise pollution in urban areas, affecting residents and businesses.  
  • Industrial Noise: Industrial activities, such as manufacturing and construction, generate noise that can impact nearby communities and workers.  
  • Aircraft Noise: Noise from aircraft, especially during takeoff and landing, can be a significant source of pollution around airports, affecting residents and businesses.  
  • Construction and Demolition Activities: Construction and demolition activities generate noise that can impact nearby communities and businesses.  
  • Social Events: Loud music, fireworks, and other social events can contribute to noise pollution, especially during festivals and celebrations.  

• Effects:

  • Hearing Loss: Prolonged exposure to high levels of noise can cause hearing loss and tinnitus (ringing in the ears).
  • Stress and Anxiety: Noise pollution can increase stress and anxiety levels, affecting mental health and well-being.
  • Sleep Disturbance: Noise can disrupt sleep patterns, leading to fatigue, reduced concentration, and other health problems.
  • Cognitive Impairment: Noise pollution can affect cognitive performance, especially in children, leading to reduced learning abilities and academic performance.
  • Cardiovascular Effects: Studies have linked noise pollution to cardiovascular problems, such as high blood pressure and heart disease.

• Measurement:

  • Noise levels are measured in decibels (dB). The higher the decibel level, the louder the sound.
  • The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a noise level of 55 dB during the day and 45 dB at night for optimal health and well-being.

• Specific Examples:

  • Traffic noise is a major source of noise pollution in cities worldwide, affecting millions of people.
  • Ocean noise has increased significantly due to shipping activities, impacting marine life and ecosystems.  

• Prevention and Control:

  • Noise Barriers and Insulation: Constructing noise barriers and using sound insulation materials in buildings can help reduce noise levels.
  • Traffic Management: Implementing traffic management strategies, such as speed limits and traffic calming measures, can reduce traffic noise.
  • Quieter Technologies: Promoting the use of quieter technologies in industries, transportation, and construction can help reduce noise pollution.
  • Zoning Regulations: Implementing zoning regulations that separate residential areas from noisy activities, such as industries and airports, can protect communities from noise pollution.
  • Public Awareness: Raising public awareness about the harmful effects of noise pollution can encourage individuals and communities to take measures to reduce noise levels.

Urban Waste Disposal

• Sources:

  • Domestic Waste: Households generate various types of waste, including food waste, paper, plastic, glass, and metal.  
  • Industrial Waste: Industries produce a wide range of waste, including hazardous waste, packaging materials, and construction debris.  
  • Commercial Waste: Businesses, such as shops, restaurants, and offices, generate waste from packaging, food, and other materials.
  • Construction and Demolition Waste: Construction and demolition activities generate significant amounts of waste, including concrete, bricks, wood, and metal.  
  • Biomedical Waste: Hospitals and healthcare facilities generate biomedical waste, including sharps, infectious materials, and pharmaceutical waste.

• Effects:

  • Health Hazards: Improper waste disposal can create unsanitary conditions, attracting pests and spreading diseases.  
  • Environmental Pollution: Waste can contaminate soil, water, and air, harming ecosystems and human health.  
  • Aesthetic Degradation: Accumulated waste can be visually unappealing and detract from the quality of urban environments.
  • Economic Impact: Waste management and disposal can be costly, and improper waste disposal can lead to economic losses due to health problems and environmental damage.

• Specific Examples:

  • In many Indian cities, waste management remains a challenge, with a significant amount of waste remaining uncollected and improperly disposed of, leading to health and environmental problems.  
  • The Swachh Bharat Mission is a government initiative aimed at improving sanitation and waste management practices across India, including in urban areas.  

• Prevention and Control:

  • Waste Reduction: Reducing waste generation through source reduction, reuse, and recycling can minimize the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of.
  • Waste Segregation: Separating waste at source into different categories, such as organic waste, recyclable materials, and hazardous waste, can facilitate proper disposal and recycling.
  • Composting: Composting organic waste can reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills and produce valuable fertilizer for agriculture.
  • Recycling: Recycling materials, such as paper, plastic, glass, and metal, can conserve resources and reduce pollution.
  • Waste-to-Energy: Converting waste to energy through technologies like incineration or anaerobic digestion can reduce landfill space and generate electricity.
  • Landfill Management: Proper landfill management, including leachate collection and treatment, can minimize environmental impact and protect groundwater resources.

Rural-Urban Migration

• Causes:

  • Economic Opportunities: Urban areas offer more job opportunities and higher wages compared to rural areas, attracting people seeking better economic prospects.  
  • Education and Healthcare: Urban areas generally have better access to education and healthcare facilities, attracting people seeking better opportunities for themselves and their families.
  • Infrastructure and Amenities: Urban areas offer better infrastructure, amenities, and services, such as transportation, communication, and entertainment, attracting people seeking a better quality of life.
  • Social and Cultural Factors: Urban areas offer a more diverse and dynamic social and cultural environment, attracting people seeking new experiences and opportunities.
  • Push Factors: Factors like poverty, lack of opportunities, and environmental degradation in rural areas can push people to migrate to urban areas.

• Effects:

  • Urbanization: Rural-urban migration contributes to rapid urbanization, leading to the growth of cities and towns.
  • Population Pressure: Increased population in urban areas puts pressure on infrastructure, resources, and services, leading to challenges in housing, transportation, and sanitation.
  • Social and Economic Changes: Migration can lead to social and economic changes in both rural and urban areas, affecting family structures, communities, and labor markets.
  • Environmental Impact: Urbanization can lead to environmental problems, such as air and water pollution, waste generation, and loss of green spaces.

• Specific Examples:

  • The case study of Ramesh illustrates the challenges and opportunities faced by rural migrants in urban areas, highlighting the economic and social adjustments they have to make.  
  • India’s urban population is growing rapidly due to rural-urban migration, leading to challenges in providing adequate housing, infrastructure, and services.  

• Addressing the Challenges:

  • Balanced Regional Development: Promoting balanced regional development by creating economic opportunities and improving infrastructure in rural areas can reduce the push factors for migration.
  • Urban Planning and Management: Effective urban planning and management can help accommodate the growing urban population and provide adequate housing, infrastructure, and services.
  • Skill Development and Employment Generation: Providing skill development and employment generation programs for migrants can help them integrate into the urban economy and improve their livelihoods.
  • Social Inclusion: Promoting social inclusion and addressing the needs of vulnerable migrant populations can help them access education, healthcare, and other essential services.

Problems of Slums

• Characteristics:

  • Substandard Housing: Slums are characterized by overcrowded and dilapidated housing, often lacking basic amenities like clean water, sanitation, and electricity.  
  • Poor Sanitation and Hygiene: Lack of proper sanitation and hygiene facilities in slums leads to health hazards and the spread of diseases.  
  • Overcrowding: High population density in slums contributes to overcrowding, making living conditions cramped and uncomfortable.
  • Lack of Infrastructure: Slums often lack basic infrastructure, such as roads, drainage systems, and waste management facilities, leading to environmental problems and health risks.
  • Social and Economic Vulnerability: Slum dwellers are often marginalized and face social and economic challenges, including poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to education and healthcare.  

• Challenges:

  • Health Risks: Poor living conditions in slums contribute to various health problems, including respiratory diseases, waterborne diseases, and malnutrition.
  • Social Exclusion: Slum dwellers often face social exclusion and discrimination, limiting their access to education, employment, and other opportunities.
  • Crime and Violence: Slums can be breeding grounds for crime and violence due to poverty, unemployment, and lack of social control.
  • Environmental Degradation: Slums often contribute to environmental degradation due to improper waste disposal, lack of sanitation facilities, and encroachment on natural resources.

• Specific Examples:

  • Dharavi in Mumbai is one of the largest slums in Asia, facing numerous challenges related to housing, sanitation, and infrastructure, despite being a hub of economic activity.  

• Addressing the Challenges:

  • Slum Redevelopment and Upgrading: Slum redevelopment and upgrading programs can provide better housing, infrastructure, and services to slum dwellers, improving their living conditions and quality of life.
  • Community Participation: Involving slum dwellers in the planning and implementation of development programs can ensure that their needs and priorities are addressed.
  • Social and Economic Empowerment: Providing education, skill development, and employment opportunities to slum dwellers can help them overcome poverty and social exclusion.
  • Land Tenure Security: Providing land tenure security to slum dwellers can encourage them to invest in improving their homes and communities.
  • Basic Services: Ensuring access to basic services, such as water, sanitation, healthcare, and education, is crucial for improving the health and well-being of slum dwellers.

Land Degradation

• Causes:

  • Soil Erosion: Soil erosion by wind and water is a major cause of land degradation, leading to the loss of fertile topsoil and reduced agricultural productivity.  
  • Waterlogging: Waterlogging occurs when excess water accumulates in the soil, hindering plant growth and causing salinization.  
  • Salinization: Salinization is the accumulation of salts in the soil, making it unsuitable for agriculture and harming plant growth.  
  • Alkalinization: Alkalinization is the increase in soil pH, making it alkaline and unsuitable for many crops.  
  • Deforestation: Deforestation removes vegetation cover, leaving the soil vulnerable to erosion and degradation.
  • Overgrazing: Overgrazing by livestock can compact the soil, reduce vegetation cover, and lead to erosion.
  • Unsustainable Agriculture: Unsustainable agricultural practices, such as excessive tillage and monoculture, can deplete soil nutrients and degrade soil structure.
  • Mining: Mining activities can disrupt soil structure, contaminate soil and water resources, and lead to land degradation.
  • Industrial Activities: Industrial activities can release pollutants that contaminate soil and water resources, harming ecosystems and human health.

• Effects:

  • Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Land degradation reduces agricultural productivity, affecting food security and livelihoods.
  • Loss of Biodiversity: Land degradation can lead to the loss of biodiversity, as habitats are destroyed and ecosystems are disrupted.
  • Water Scarcity: Land degradation can reduce water infiltration and storage capacity, contributing to water scarcity.
  • Climate Change: Land degradation can contribute to climate change by reducing carbon sequestration and increasing greenhouse gas emissions.
  • Economic Impact: Land degradation can have significant economic impacts, affecting agriculture, tourism, and other industries that rely on natural resources.

• Specific Examples:

  • The case study of Jhabua district in Madhya Pradesh demonstrates how community-based watershed management programs can help prevent land degradation, improve soil quality, and enhance livelihoods.

• Desertification: Desertification is the process of land degradation in arid and semi-arid regions, leading to the expansion of deserts and loss of productive land.

• Prevention and Control:

  • Sustainable Land Management Practices: Implementing sustainable land management practices, such as contour farming, terracing, and crop rotation, can help prevent soil erosion and conserve soil fertility.
  • Afforestation and Reforestation: Planting trees and restoring forests can help prevent soil erosion, improve water infiltration, and enhance biodiversity.
  • Water Management: Efficient water management practices, such as rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation, can help prevent waterlogging and salinization.
  • Grazing Management: Controlled grazing practices can prevent overgrazing and protect vegetation cover.
  • Soil Conservation Measures: Implementing soil conservation measures, such as contour bunding and check dams, can help reduce soil erosion and conserve water.
  • Land Use Planning: Proper land use planning can help prevent land degradation by allocating land for appropriate uses and protecting sensitive areas.

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